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In my previous tutorial, I explained how I implemented heuristic approaches for finding inter-annotator agreement between three annotators.
Heuristic approaches are excellent for understanding the degree of agreement between multiple annotators. However, you should back your analysis with statistical evidence. This is where statistical techniques for inter-annotator agreement come into play.
In this tutorial, I will explain statistical approaches to find the inter-annotator agreement in Python using Pandas dataframes as annotation datasets.
I have already explained the dataset details in my previous tutorial. The dataset consists of 9 columns. Each column contains an emotion rank (1, 2, or 3). Three annotators annotate each dataset. The data is stored in Pandas dataframes which look like the one in the following screenshot:
We need to find statistical measures of agreement between the three annotators.
Various statistical approaches exist for finding inter-annotator agreement between more than two annotators, e.g., Fleiss' kappa and Krippendorff's alpha.
Several Python libraries implement the aforementioned statistical approaches. These libraries allow you to find the agreement between individual lists and NumPy arrays. However, I could not find a library that would enable finding inter-annotator agreements for all the corresponding columns of multiple Pandas dataframes.
Therefore, I wrote Python functions that allow finding Fleiss Kappa and Krippendorff's Alpha values for corresponding columns in multiple Pandas dataframe. The functions also return mean values for the agreement between all the columns.
The Python statsmodel module provides functionalities to perform various statistical tests. Among the functions, you can use the fleiss_kappa()
to find the Fleiss kappa values for inter-annotator agreement.
You can install the statsmodel library using the following pip command:
pip install statsmodels
The following script implements the get_fleiss_kappa()
function, which returns Fleiss kappa values for the corresponding columns in Pandas dataframes. The function accepts a list of Pandas dataframes where each dataframe contains annotations from one of the annotators.
Inside the function, we first iterate through all the columns in the input Pandas dataframes. During each iteration, values from the corresponding columns of the three Pandas dataframe are used to create an agreement matrix with three columns.
The data from the agreement matrix is passed to the aggregate_raters()
function, which returns a matrix in shape accepted by the fleiss_kappa()
function.
The get_fleiss_kappa()
function returns the results
dictionary, which stores the Fleiss kappa values for all the columns in the input Pandas dataframe.
The following script contains the implementation for the get_fleiss_kappa()
function.
import statsmodels
from statsmodels.stats.inter_rater import fleiss_kappa
from statistics import mean
def get_fleiss_kappa(datasets):
results = {}
## extract corresponding columns from the three datasets
for col in datasets[0].columns:
dataset_columns = []
for dataset in datasets:
dataset_columns.append(dataset[col])
## find fleiss kapa values for corresponding columns
agreement_matrix = pd.concat(dataset_columns, axis = 1)
table = statsmodels.stats.inter_rater.aggregate_raters(agreement_matrix.values)
res = fleiss_kappa(table[0])
results[col] = res
## find mean values for all columns
results['mean'] = mean(results.values())
return results
In the following script, we pass a list of three Pandas dataframe containing annotations to the get_fleiss_kappa()
function.
We convert the dictionary returned by the get_fleiss_kappa()
to a Pandas dataframe and then take its transpose to display column names and kappa values as columns.
In the output, you can see Fleiss Kappa values for inter-annotator agreement for all the columns in the three input dataframes.
results1 = get_fleiss_kappa([file_50_1_JC, file_50_1_HL, file_50_1_SB])
results1_df = pd.DataFrame.from_dict([results1]).T
results1_df = results1_df.reset_index()
results1_df.columns =['Emotion', 'Kappa Value']
results1_df.head(10)
Output:
To better understand the comparison between Fleiss Kappa values, you can plot a bar plot for all the values in the Kappa Value column.
The following script uses the Python Seaborn library for plotting the bar plot.
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
plt.figure(figsize=(10,8))
sns.barplot(data = results1_df, x= 'Emotion', y="Kappa Value")
Output
The Python Krippendorff library implements Krippendorffs Alpha. You can install the library with the following pip command:
pip install krippendorff
The alpha()
function from the krippendorff
module returns the Krippendorffs alpha given an input matrix.
The following script implements the get_krippendorff()
function that returns Krippendorfs alpha for inter-annotator agreement between corresponding columns of two or more Pandas dataframes.
The get_krippendorf()
function is quite similar to the get_fleiss_kappa()
function as it accepts a list of Pandas dataframes as a parameter value and returns a dictionary containing Krippendorf Alpha values for all the corresponding columns in the list of dataframes.
The following script implements the get_krippendorf()
function:
import statsmodels
from statistics import mean
import krippendorff as kd
def get_krippendorff(datasets):
results = {}
## extract corresponding columns from the three datasets
for col in datasets[0].columns:
dataset_columns = []
for dataset in datasets:
dataset_columns.append(dataset[col])
agreement_matrix = pd.concat(dataset_columns, axis = 1).T
## find fleiss kapa values for krippendorff's alpha
res = kd.alpha(agreement_matrix, level_of_measurement='nominal')
results[col] = res
## find mean values for all columns
results['mean'] = mean(results.values())
return results
The following script converts the values returned by the get_krippendorf()
function into a Pandas dataframe:
results1 = get_krippendorff([file_50_1_JC, file_50_1_HL, file_50_1_SB])
results1_df = pd.DataFrame.from_dict([results1]).T
results1_df = results1_df.reset_index()
results1_df.columns =['Emotion', 'krippendorff Alpha']
results1_df.head(10)
Output:
Finally, as you did previously, you can plot a bar plot that shows how Krippendorfs Alpha values compare for different columns in input Pandas dataframes.
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
plt.figure(figsize=(10,8))
sns.barplot(data = results1_df, x= 'Emotion', y="krippendorff Alpha")
Whether you’re growing your personal brand, showcasing your knowledge, or promoting your business, webinars and webcasts can help you achieve your goal.
And while the two terms are often used interchangeably, they’re actually slightly different.
A webinar is an online seminar or educational presentation, usually led by a single speaker. Webinars are interactive, which means participants can ask questions and engage with the presenter in real time.
A webcast, on the other hand, is more like a broadcast. It’s a one-way presentation that’s streamed live, without the opportunity for audience interaction.
In this article, we will examine the key differences between webinars and webcasts. We’ll also explore when you should use each one to achieve your desired outcome.
Now that you understand the key differences between webinars and webcasts, it’s time to choose the best live event solution for your needs.
Here are our favorite webcasting services:
If you want to see which one would be best suited for your needs, you can read our full reviews of each webcasting service here.
Also known as an online or web seminar, a webinar is a type of online presentation that participants attend over the internet.
Typically, webinars are led by a presenter who shares audio, video, and/or text content on a given topic while participants listen and follow along in real time. Many webinars also allow participants to ask questions and interact with the presenter during the live event.
Webinars can be used for a variety of purposes, such as providing training and continuing education, delivering product demonstrations, or presenting company updates.
Some webinars are also open to the public and serve as marketing or lead generation tools.
No matter the purpose, webinars offer a convenient way to reach a large audience without everyone having to be in the same physical space.
A webcast—also called a live stream—is a live video broadcast that is streamed over the internet. Webcasts serve several purposes, such as delivering lectures, conferences, or product demonstrations. They are also a popular way for gamers, content creators, and celebrities to connect with their fans.
Webcasts can take the form of public lectures, interviews, panel discussions, or music concerts and can be streamed live. Sometimes, viewers can also access them on-demand later.
Unlike traditional television broadcasts, which are limited to a specific geographical area, webcasts can be heard or seen by anyone with an internet connection. This makes them an ideal way to communicate with a large audience, whether for educational purposes, marketing purposes, or entertainment.
With the popularity of smartphones and other portable devices, webcasts are also becoming increasingly mobile, meaning that they can be enjoyed anywhere, at any time.
As you can see, webinars and webcasts are fairly similar. Let’s take a look at what makes them different.
One of the main differences between webinars and webcasts is that webinars are usually gated events. That means participants must sign up or register in advance to access the live event. In some cases, there may even be a paywall.
On the other hand, webcasts are generally open to anyone with an internet connection. All they have to do is go to the website or platform where the webcast is hosted (e.g., Twitch, YouTube, Facebook Live) and start watching.
Gating webinars can be a good way to generate leads or collect data about potential customers. But it also means that only a small fraction of the people who see your marketing materials will actually end up attending the live event.
If your goal is to reach as many people as possible, then a webcast might be the better option.
Webinars are designed to be interactive, with participants engaging in real-time with the presenter (or each other). This could take the form of questions and answers, polls, chatrooms, or even hands-on exercises.
Since webinars are often used for training or educational purposes, this two-way engagement is essential for ensuring that participants are actually learning and retaining the information being presented.
Webcasts, on the other hand, are usually one-way broadcasts. The focus is on delivering information (or entertainment) to the audience, rather than engaging with them. Of course, some webcasts do include a chatroom or Q&A session. But these are typically secondary to the live video feed and consist primarily of users’ comments.
So, if you’re looking to create an interactive experience for your audience, then a webinar is probably the way to go. If you just want to deliver a lecture or share some information with as many people as possible, then a webcast is probably a better option.
Webinars are primarily used for internal communications, such as employee training, or external communications, such as marketing to potential customers. They are also a way of delivering a keynote speech remotely or demoing a new product to interested buyers.
In this way, they mostly focus on nurturing leads and building relationships with customers (or potential customers).
Webcasts, on the other hand, are all about promoting brand awareness. By broadcasting live events to a wide audience, businesses can increase their visibility and reach potential customers they wouldn’t have access to.
If you’re looking to build relationships with customers or generate leads, then a webinar is a good option. A webcast might be a better choice if you’re trying to increase brand awareness through entertaining live-streaming video content.
Most of the time, people host webinars to educate someone on a certain topic or provoke thought and discussion around an issue. For example, you might host a webinar on how to use your product, or invite an expert to give a presentation on the latest industry trends.
Similarly, webinars are often used as a panel discussion platform where a group of experts debate a topic or share their different perspectives.
While webcasts can also be educational, they are more likely to be entertaining in nature. For example, you might host a webcast concert featuring live music performances, or broadcast a live event like a conference or a product launch.
Similarly, an online streamer or content creator would host a webcast to entertain their audience with live-streaming video content.
So, if you want to educate or engage in thought-provoking discussion with input from your audience, then a webinar is probably a good option. If you’re looking to connect with your audience in a one-sided, entertaining way, then a webcast might be better.
Now that we’ve gone over the key differences between webinars and webcasts, let’s take a look at some tools you can use to improve your events.
No matter what type of event you’re hosting, these three tools will help you deliver a better experience for your audience.
If you want to monetize your webinars or offer paid webinars, then ClickMeeting is a tool you should consider. With ClickMeeting, you can create registration forms and password-protected events to keep your content secure. You can also start charging for webinars with their built-in ecommerce features.
ClickMeeting not only makes it easy to generate revenue from your big online events by allowing you to break the webcast into segments and sell tickets for each one but also provides many payment processor integrations so selling tickets is a breeze.
If you prefer, you can connect ClickMeeting with Eventbrite or Zapier. And if you don’t want to use any of our pre-existing integrations, no problem! You can easily create your own custom portal using ClickMeeting’s API.
The tools you have access to with ClickMeeting make any webcast or webinar that you want to host much more professional.
Plus, with ClickMeeting’s screen-sharing capabilities, you can show your audience exactly what you’re talking about as you’re presenting. This is a great way to keep your audience engaged and ensure that they understand your message. Get started now.
Twitch was once only popular with gamers who wanted to live-stream their gaming sessions, but it has since become a go-to platform for all types of content creators.
While Twitch is mostly known for its live-streaming capabilities, it’s also a great tool for hosting webinars and webcasts.
The platform has built-in chat features that allow you to interact with your audience in real time, and you can also use its screen-sharing features to show your audience what you’re talking about.
Plus, Twitch provides a great way to build an engaged community around your brand. If you’re looking for a tool that will help you connect with your audience on a deeper level, then Twitch is a great option.
If you want to take things to the next level, you can also sign up for their affiliate program, which gives you access to additional features and tools.
Rev is an automated webinar transcription tool that can transcribe your webinars and webcasts for you. Once your webinar is over, you can send your recording to your attendees with the transcription attached.
This is a great way to make sure that your audience can access your content even if they can’t attend the live event–or if they’d like to see it again.
Plus, having transcripts of your webinars and webcasts can be valuable for marketing and SEO purposes. If you need fresh content ideas, your webinar transcripts can be a great starting point. Get started with Rev now.
Once you have the necessary software and tools in place, it’s time to start thinking about how you can make your webinars even better. Here are three tips:
You must invest in great audio quality to succeed in your webinars or webcasts. This means using a microphone to pick up your voice clearly and investing in a good internet connection.
You also need to make sure that there’s no background noise in the room where you’re recording. If possible, use a separate room for your webinars or webcasts.
In addition to audio quality, you also need to make sure that your video is high-quality. This means investing in a good webcam and ensuring that there’s enough light in the room.
If you want to take things to the next level, you can even hire a professional video team to help you with your webinars or webcasts.
One of the most important things to remember when hosting a webinar or webcast is to engage with your audience. This means interacting with them in the chat, taking questions, and making sure that they’re involved in the conversation.
The more you can engage with your audience, the more likely they are to stick around until the end of your webinar or webcast.
Plus, engaging with your audience is a great way to build relationships and create a connection with them. If they feel like they know you and they can trust you, they’re more likely to do business with you in the future.
If you aren’t sure how to structure your webinar to make it more inclusive, here is a good template:
If you want to get the most out of your web broadcasts, you’ll have to focus on continuous improvement. The only way to do this is by closely monitoring your webinar KPIs (key performance indicators).
Some of the most important webinar KPIs include:
By monitoring these KPIs, you can identify areas where your webinars need improvement. For example, if you notice that your email open rates are low, you may need to work on your subject lines. Or, if your survey scores are low, you may need to make some changes to your content or delivery.
By making small tweaks and improvements over time, you can gradually increase the quality and results of your webinars. And, as you become more experienced, you’ll naturally get better at them.
Once you’ve begun to stream webinars or webcasts, you’ll want to get better at promoting them, so you can get more people to register and attend. You’ll also want to keep improving them so your audience gets more of what they like.
Here are a few posts that can help you with that: